ADP核糖基化对DNA损伤修复的调控
摘要 DNA链断裂在细胞中持续发生,可导致染色体重排和基因组不稳定或细胞死亡。最常见的是DNA单链断裂,单个细胞每天可成千上万次发生,会阻碍RNA/DNA 聚合酶的反应,干扰基因转录和基因组复制。如果DNA单链断裂没有得到及时修复,在基因组复制过程中会演变转变为DNA双链断裂,从而激活一系列的DNA损伤反应。在DNA的损伤修复途径中,ADP核糖基化行使了非常重要的功能,本文将详细阐述ADP核糖基化参与的具体DNA损伤修复途径。
关键词 ADP核糖基化;DNA损伤;修复
中图分类号 P361.3 文献标识码 A 文章编号 1007-5739(2015)18-0273-02
ADP核糖基化指的是烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸中的ADP核糖基部分与某些蛋白质的氨基酸残基发生共价连接反应,从而影响蛋白质的功能。ADP核糖基化由ADP核糖转移酶(ADPRTS)来完成,动物细胞有一个很大的ADP核糖转移酶基因家族,在这个基因家族中,有的具有多聚ADP核糖基团转移活性(poly ADP ribosylation),对底物进行多聚ADP核糖基化修饰;有的具有单一ADP核糖基团转移活性(momo-ADP ribosylation),对底物进行单个ADP核糖基化修饰[1-3]。在DNA损伤过程中,可检测的多聚ADP核糖基化,多聚转移酶PARP-1占据了80%~90%。PARP-1也可以进行自身ADP核糖基化修饰,在较小程度上,也可以对其他DNA修复蛋白和组蛋白进行短暂的ADP核糖基化修饰。现将ADP参与的具体DNA损伤修复途径介绍如下。
1 ADP核糖基化与DNA单链断裂修复(SSBR)
1.1 ADP核糖基化与DNA单链断裂(SSBs)
DNA单链断裂是一种最常见的DNA损伤,与可遗传的神经变性疾病密切相关[4],SSBs可由糖氧化损伤直接产生,也可由DNA碱基切除修复(BER)或DNA拓扑异构酶1(TOP1)失活间接产生。到目前为止,PARP-1在ADPRT家族中是唯一被证明参与SSBs修复过程的[5]。PARP-1是一种核定位蛋白,在遗传稳定性、细胞抗电离辐射和烷基化损伤等方面发挥着重要功能[6-9]。PARP-1除了与其参与的DNA损伤修复过程一致的表型外,还有一些其他的表型,因为PARP-1还具有通过调整染色质结构调控基因转录的功能[10-11]。
PARP-1通过2个锌指结构域结合DNA断裂链,结合后,其活性将被迅速激活到500倍以上。这种结合是一个非常短暂的过程,因为其自ADP核糖基化会导致其从DNA链上脱离下来。多聚ADP核糖基团在几分钟内会被多聚ADP核糖水解酶降解。PARP-1与DNA断裂链的脱离有利于其他DNA修复蛋白与断裂链的结合。
1.2 ADP核糖基化与DNA单链断裂修复(SSBR)
ADP核糖转移酶的合成促进DNA单链断裂修复,比如脱氧核糖分解导致的DNA单链氧化断裂。由于这些断裂在核基因组上随机发生,需要这样的一个感受因子去发现并修复这些断裂。PARP-1促进SSBR的途径之一是通过促进XRCC1的积累来发挥功能。XRCC1可与其他的SSBR酶复合体组分直接互作,可促进SSBR酶复合体的形成并维持其稳定性。XRCC1有一个BRC保守结构域,可与核糖基化的PARP结合,因此PARP通过自ADP核糖基化来促进XRCC1和其他互作的蛋白因子在DNA断裂链的积累,从而完成修复过程[12]。
除了XRCC1的积累之外,染色质结构的调控也是PARP-1促进SSBR的途径。PARP-1可通过组蛋白ADP核糖基化,组蛋白分子伴侣、染色质重塑因子的积累来调整染色质结构,通过调控基因转录来促进SSBR过程[13-15]。
2 ADP核糖基化与DNA 复制过程中的DNA损伤修复
大量证据PARP-1参与了全基因组SSBs的修复。未修复的SSBs在细胞分裂S期,会导致复制叉的解体,从而演变成DNA双链断裂(DSBs),这需要通过同源重组(HR)的方式来进行修复,大量证据表明PARP-1在该过程发挥了重要功能。在外施喜树碱(CPT)诱导SSBs或TOP1失活剂的情况下,PARP-1可阻止脊椎动物复制叉的解体。此外,在复制叉已经解体的情况下,PARP-1可引导对SSBs演变成的DSBs进行HR修复而不是不利于基因稳定遗传的NHEJ(非同源重组黏性末端结合)修复。在DT40细胞中,PART-1突变体对CPT高度敏感,这种表型可在抑制KU80和Lig4基因(参与NHEJ的相关基因)的情况下得以回复。同样,在外施PARP抑制剂的情况下,HR途径会受到抑制,这种抑制™在NHEJ相关基因突变的情况下得到恢复[16]。
3 ADP核糖基化与非同源重组黏性末端结合(NHEJ)
在NHEJ途径中,主要依赖于NHEJ关键因子Ku、DNA-PKcs和Lig4,该途径又被称为传统的NHEJ(C-NHEJ)途径;除此之外,还存在另外一种A-NHEJ途径,虽然它不是最主要的NHEJ,但其在染色体重排和基因组稳定性方面同样发挥着重要功能[17-19]。
3.1 ADP核糖基化与C-NHEJ
多个证据表明,ADP核糖基化参与了NHEJ途径,比如:PARP-1可以结合DSBs,并被激活;PARP-1可与Ku、DNA-PKcs直接互作;PARP-1可以招募染色体重塑酶SMARCA5/SNF2H。但在PARP-1突变体试验中,并没有太多的证据表明PARP-1促进了C-NHEJ途径,也许PARP-1参与的是A- NHEJ途径[20]。尽管PARP-1在C-NHEJ途径中的功能未知,但在C-NHEJ过程中确实存在蛋白ADP核糖基化修饰。在参与C-NHEJ的很多蛋白,包括Ku70都存在结合单一或多聚ADP核糖基团的结构域。最近报道的APLF带有结合多聚ADP核糖基团的PBZ结构域。APLF虽然不为NHEJ所必需,但可促进这一进程[21-26]。奇怪的是,APLF参与C-NHEJ途径依赖的并不是PARP-1,而是PARP-3。PARP-3与PARP-1有诸多不同,比如它为DSBs所激活的程度不如PARP-1高。此外,它对靶蛋白多进行单一ADP核糖基修饰,而非PARP-1行使的多聚修饰方式[27-28]。
3.2 ADP核糖基化与A-NHEJ
相对于C-NHEJ途径而言,PARP-1确切地参与了A-NHEJ过程[29-31]。A-NHEJ是一种不依赖于Ku和DNA-PKcs的途径,主要包括2种方式:一种是根据DNA微同源序列利用DNA连接酶3(DNA Lig3)进行修复;另一种不依赖于DNA微同源序列利用DNA连接酶1(DNA Lig1)进行修复[32-33]。A-NHEJ可在细胞中轻易检测到,在细胞不同周期、不同发育期动态发生,尤其在G2时期达到最高值[34-36]。A-NHEJ解释了包括DSBs诱导的染色体易位、基因重排和端粒融合等多种现象[37-41]。PARP-1在A-NHEJ过程中,可能行使了招募DNA连接酶3进行DNA连接的功能,具体还有待研究。
4 展望
尽管在ADP核糖基化对DNA损伤修复的调控方面取得了大量的研究成果,但是在评价PARP在DNA修复中的功能时,PARP抑制剂的使用对试验结果的准确性造成了一定的影响,因为它在试验过程中将会导致额外的DNA损伤,这种损伤不能等价于在PARP缺失时造成的DNA损伤。同时,在DNA损伤以后,多聚ADP核糖基化的关键靶点现在仍然未知。随着质谱技术的发展,将为检测和分析多聚ADP核糖基化修饰的靶蛋白提供了强有力的工具,为揭示DNA损伤修复的奥秘提供更多的科学依据。这些研究将有助于人们了解基因突变和进化的机制。
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